Chapter 132: Food, Fashion, and Popular Leisure in Late 17th Century Japan
By the beginning of the 17th century, the predominant hairstyle among samurai men was the chasenmage hairstyle (茶筅髷) paired with the practice of sakayaki (月代) or keeping the top of the head completely shaved. Oda Nobunaga’s chasen-mage would become particularly iconic as he was the first ruler of Japan to forgo usage of eboshi hats (烏帽子) except for ceremonial functions. The chasen-mage would soon spread amongst the court nobility and the commoner classes and become the standard male hairstyle by the middle of the century. In the latter half, however, another hair style, the chonmage (丁髷) hairstyle, emerged in the urban centers of Kyoto, Sakai, and Azuchi. Marked by a folded topknot, it was first adorned by the merchant and artisan classes who opted for what they saw as a cleaner and more compact look. Soon, the samurai class began to adopt it, although most still had a chasenmage at the close of the century, especially in eastern and northern Japan as well as in Bireito and Luson [1].
Womens’ hairstyles would change even more significantly in the 17th century. At the beginning of the century, the samurai and court nobility still wore their hair down in varying lengths in the suihatsu style (垂髪) like they had for hundreds of years. However, this began to change with the popularization of the practice of tying up hair upwards. Early examples of this include the karawa (唐輪) and tatehyogo (立兵庫) hairstyles and originated among courtesans before spreading amongst the merchant and artisan classes. Samurai women, however, would largely refrain from adopting these styles until their evolution into the tsukunehyogo (つくね兵庫), marked both by a top knot and downward-trending hair going down to the shoulders. This hairstyle picked up in popularity in the late 17th century and would predominate especially among the samurai class by 1700 [2], with only noblewomen continuing to wear their hair in the suihatsu style. Uniquely in Bireito, the karawa and tatehyogo styles not only saw earlier adoption by women of the samurai class but even spread among middle and upper class Chinese and indigenous women.
Modern-day depictions of the tatehyogo and tsukunehyogo hairstyles
Kimono would also evolve during the 17th century, with the kosode (小袖) spreading among the common people especially in urban centers and designs and techniques becoming ever more elaborate. Japan’s trade expansionism saw its cities attract commerce and wealth in an unprecedented fashion, resulting in opulent colors and patterns becoming more accessible and fashion trends shifting into the hands of the increasingly wealthy and influential merchant class as opposed to the samurai and court nobility. Even the material changed, with rinzu (綸子) or silk damask becoming preferred over plain-weave silk. Additionally, the fur trade also led to the popularization of fur pelts being worn or accessorized in Japan, principally among men and especially the samurai class. Tiger and leopard furs were the most prized, with wolf, sable, and fox pelts also prominent. Their usage ranged from being strung on the shoulder to being made into kataginu (肩衣). Their incorporation as clothing, however, was seen as immoral and controversial by a sizable segment of the population, being seen as a violation of Shinto-Buddhist virtues.
Food and eating would similarly change and reflect not only the better material conditions and greater peace and stability in the realm but also the extensive trade taking place between Japan and the rest of the world. Japanese cuisine would be able to expand through three key internal developments: the transition from 2 meals to 3 meals a day as a custom, the integration of snacking and snack foods like mochi and noodles, and an intake of foreign foods, crops, and flavors. Additionally, the consumption of white rice would also proliferate among the urban populace, although the vast majority of farmers and peasants continued to rely on millet as a base meal. These developments facilitated an expansion of the Japanese diet and a greater culinary interest in the realm, allowing for steady population growth and a culinary cultural blossoming. This was best represented by the introduction and proliferation of several nanbangashi (南蛮菓子), or Western sweets, followed by their domestic production when Japan began to import sugar in greater amounts. Some of these included the Portuguese konpeito (金平糖) and French sweet and savory crepes [3], with the latter often made from buckwheat as opposed to wheat flour. Various agricultural products also made their way into Japan throughout the 17th century, including sweet potatoes, tomatoes, and squash. Many of these new crops would quickly begin to be cultivated in swaths of the countryside affected by war or susceptible to famine, especially the sweet potato. Ezo in particular saw heavy cultivation of sweet potatoes and potatoes due to the absence of a pre-existing rice-based society and the colder temperatures [4]. Vineyards continued to spread as the demand for wine grew not just from the Yamato Church but also from wealthy merchants and samurai who enjoyed its taste. Fish and poultry would continue to constitute the main protein source as the consumption of four-legged animals remained largely culturally taboo for most of the populace with the exception of those hunted by the samurai class, though. The advent of open-boat shore whaling would introduce whale meat into the mix.
Far to the south, Bireito’s and Luson’s majority non-Japanese populations meant that food that the Japanese cuisine down there would diverge more and more from that of the home islands despite consistent contact throughout the greater realm. Here, the consumption of pork and other native four legged mammals was much more widely accepted, although cows continued to be valued and thus largely not part of the diet on both islands. The cultivation of sugar and tropical fruits also added a more sugar-intensive taste compared to that of the home islands. On Bireito, the sizable Chinese population introduced Fujianese and other mainland cuisines, infusing the Japanese diet with such condiments and foods like pork belly buns and fish sauce. Meanwhile, coconut byproducts like coconut oil and coconut milk made their way in the Japanese diet on Luson while curry and adobo began to infuse into traditional Japanese dishes introduced by settlers.
In general, the late 17th century was a time of increased leisure and fun for the average Japanese person. Beyond the greater quality of food and clothing, several cultural celebrations and traditions began during this time. One of the most significant trends was the popularity of the o-ise-mairi (お伊勢参り), or the practice of pilgrimage to the Ise Grand Shrine (伊勢神宮) which was dedicated to the Shinto sun goddess of Amaterasu (天照大神). As it was a several days’ trip from Sakai, Kyoto, Azuchi, and Gifu, it was an accessible activity for many. Other popular trips included those to the Izumo Grand Shrine (出雲大社) and the Kumano Sanzan (熊野三山) as well as Atsuta Shrine (熱田神宮) [5] where Oda Nobunaga famously prayed at before the Battle of Okehazama. Meanwhile, members of the Yamato Church would embark upon their own pilgrimages to the home church in Azuchi. Another trend was the development of special days and cultural traditions revolved around the gosekku (五節句), the five traditional annual ceremonies held by the imperial court. With the unification of the realm, these ceremonies began to be held in grand splendor without a shortage of funds once again, their occurrence reverberating across a relatively stable Japan. From these gosekku sprouted several days celebrated across both major cities and rural villages from setsubun (節分) to tanabata (七夕), marked by much festivity. Outside of these were yet more other celebrations and traditions, particularly those on the local level. All of these were often accompanied by an abundance of fireworks. A particularly famous annual firework display was one right above Azuchi Castle with a special structure within the castle eventually built to accommodate its ignition and launch. From its position, the fireworks could be seen from across Azuchi, and so magnificent were they that it was described by contemporary writers to be one of the most visually stunning phenomena in all of Japan.
Depiction of an o-ise-mairi
[1]: ITTL, the chonmage will take much longer to fully take hold.
[2]: ITTL, the shimadagami style (島田髪) never develops.
[3]: Due to French contact, also overshadows castella
[4]: An IOTL trend that is taking place much earlier.
[5]: A more popular destination compared to OTL for obvious reasons.
